HMI MEMORIES

Moment peringantan 17 agustus 2013

sambutan saat pelantikan pengurus HMI tarbiyah STAIN samarinda 2011

Pragmatics

DISCOURSE ANALYSIS AND PRAGMATICS

FINAL EXAMINATION FOR MASTER (S2) DEGREE

JUNE 2014

Lecturer : Dr. Bibit Suhatmady,S.Pd.,M.Pd

NAME            : MUH. TASRIN S

NIM                : 1305086005

The Questions:

1.      Concerning the language users relationship, how you explain the concept of “relative distance”?

2.      Under what circumstance that there is cooperation between speaker and listener?

3.      Explain briefly the difference between direct and indirect illocutionary act?

4.      How would you explain that there is no direct link between the referring expression (the language) and its referent (the entity)?

5.      Why does context have an important role to determine speaker’s meaning?

THE ANSWER

1.                  The concept of Relative Distance is a concept which is raises the question of what determines the choice between the said and the unsaid. The basic answer is tied to the notion of distance. Closeness, whether it is physical, social, or conceptual, implies shared experience. On the assumption of how close or distant the listener is, speakers determine how much needs to be said. When speaker and the listener psichologically were closer the utterances that is talked perhaps used deixis and topic conversations is very softly. They may talking about their daily life and topic that personal. In additional case when the interaction between a Boss and his/her employee, the Boss may use sharp language because he/her is superior and has high position in otherhand the employee as inferior bacause of low position.

2.                  The circumstance that there is cooperation between speaker and listener happen when speaker and listener are involved in a conversation. Generally they cooperate with each others. For example when someone says “my book”, automatically the listener assumes that the listener really has a book and the listener also plans to say the reality that he really has a book. The point is the cooperation principle must give a good understanding to the speaker and the listener. Cooperation principle can be divided into four subs:

2.1. Maxim quality

·         Don’t say what you believe to be false

·         Don’t say that for which you lack adequate evidence

Example:
Background: A friend’s father considers whether or not to buy your friend a new car, and you are aware that the old car has broken down before.
A  :should I buy my son this new sport car?
B improper : I do not know if that is such a good idea, his car runs fine.
B proper   : yeah, that sounds like a good idea, his car has broken down before

2.2. Maxim quantity

·         Make your contribution as informative as is required

·         Do not make your contribution more informative than is required

Example :
Background:
A man stops his vehicle in the middle of the road to briefly ask you for directions.
A : where is the post office?
B improper : there are two in town, but the closest one is brand new. Down the road, about 50 meters past the second left. Also, you should not stop your car in the middle of the road anymore.
B improper : continue on, and make the second left up there. You will see it.

2.3. Maxim of relation

·         Be relevant

Example :
A : ugh, I wonder what time it is…..
B improper : it is 6.30
B proper : it is 6.30. So, you have the whole night ahead of you! Have you eaten at Hardy’s before?

2.4. Maxim of manner

·         Avoid obscurity of expression.

·         Avoid ambiguity

·         Be orderly.

·         Be breaf

Example:
A : can you take out the trash?
B improper : well, it is probable that I would take out the trash more often if someone were not flagrantly wasteful, such that, the majority of trash was not always coming from that person.
B proper : Sure, but we need to talk about how we are assigning the chores around here when I get back.

3.                  The difference between direct and indirect illocutionary act is on whenever there is a direct relationship between structure and function we have direct illocutionary act. Then whenever there is indirect relationship between structure and function the situation such is called indirect illocutionary act. Thus, a declarative used to make a statement is a direct speech act, but a declarative used to make a request is an indirect speech act. When it is used to make a statement, it is a direct speech art. When it is used to make a command/request, it is functioning as an indirect speech art.

Example:

It’s cold outside.

Indirect speech acts are generally associated with greater politeness in English than direct speech art.

4.                  There is no direct link between the referring expression (the language) and its referent (the entity) this can be explaned that the listener’s task is to infer correctly which entity the speaker intends to identify by using a particular referring expression. Thus happen because it is not unusual for people to want to refer to some entity or person without knowing exactly which ‘name’ would be the best word to use. The language whic is used or uttered may vague expression examples (Mr. Aftershave is late today and Mr. Kawasaki is coming) thus expression is not automatically understand by the listener. The example above may serve to illustrate that reference is not based  on an objectively correct (versus incorrect) naming, but on some locally successful (versus unsuccessful) choice of expression. We might also note from example that successful reference is necessarily collaborative, with both the speaker and the listener having role in thinking what the other has in mind. To enable a listener (or reader) to identify something. To perform an act of reference we can use proper nouns (Chomsky, Jennifer, Whiskas), other nouns in phrases (a writer, my friend, the cat) or pronouns (he, she, it). The words Jennifer or friend or she can be used to refer to many entities in the world. An expression such as the war doesn’t directly identify anything by itself, because its reference depends on who is using it. We can also refer to things when we’re not sure what to call them. We can use expressions such as the blue thing and that icky stuff and we can even invent names. For instance, there was a man who always drove his motorcycle fast and loud through my neighborhood and was locally referred to as Mr. Kawasaki. In this case, a brand name for a motorcycle is being used to refer to a person. key process here is called inference. An inference is additional information used bythe listener to create a connection between what is said and what must be meant

5.                  Context have  an important role to determine speaker’s meaning because context makes it clear’ what they or speakers meant. Indeed, it is practically a multitude that what a speaker means in uttering a certain sentence, as well as how her audience understands her, ‘depends on the context’. Without context, there is no way to determine the very sense of the word that the speaker intended to convey whereas with context there is generally no danger of misinterpretation, for meaning lives in context and the context defines meaning. The context helps us to eliminate the ambiguity, indicate the referent without clear context the reference can be very confusing, last is provinsion of clues for inferring word meaning ; Context may prove extremely valuable in guessing the meanings of new words. In many cases, when a new word (thought to be) appears for the first time, the author generally manages to give hints which might help the readers to grasp the concept or understand the idea.

 

Tasrin

Tasrin dangke

  

PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE

PENDEKATAN AKSIOLOGI DALAM PROSES PEMBELAJARAN.

Tasrin

Even looking awesome views is a leeaning process

Ilmu merupakan sesuatu yang paling penting bagi manusia, karena dengan ilmu semua keperluan dan kebutuhan manusia bisa terpenuhi secara lebih cepat dan lebih mudah. Dan merupakan kenyataan yang tidak bisa dipungkiri bahwa peradaban manusia sangat berhutang kepada ilmu. Singkatnya ilmu merupakan sarana untuk membantu manusia dalam mencapai tujuan hidupnya. Kemudian timbul pertanyaan, apakah ilmu selalu merupakan berkah dan penyelamat bagi manusia? Untuk lebih mengenal apa yang dimaksud dengan aksiologi, akan diuraikan beberapa definisi tentang aksiologi, diantaranya:

1.             Aksiologi adalah istilah yang berasal dari kata Yunani yaitu; axios yang berarti nilai atau sesuatu yang berharga. Sedangkan logos yang berarti akal, ilmu. Aksiologi dipahami sebagai teori tentang nilai, penyelidikan mengenai kodrat,kriteria dan status metafisik dari nilai. Aksiologi merupakan cabang filsafat ilmu yang mempertanyakan bagaimana manusia menggunakan ilmunya.

2.             Sedangkan arti aksiologi yang terdapat didalalam bukunya Jujun S. Suriasumantri Filsafat Ilmu Sebuah Pengantar Populer bahwa aksiologi diartikan sebagai teori nilai yang berkaitan dengan kegunaan dari pengetahuan yang diperoleh.

3.             Menurut Bramel, aksiologi terbagi dalam tiga bagian. Pertama, moral conduct, yaitu tidakan moral, bidang ini melahirkan disiplin khusus, yakni etika. Kedua, esthetic expression, yaitu ekspresi keindahan. Bidang ini melahirkan keindahan. Ketiga, sosio-political life ,yaitu kehidupan social politik, yang akan melahirkan sosio-politik.

4.             Dalam Enyclopedia of philosophy dijelaskan, aksiologi disamakan dengan Value and Valuation. Ada tiga bentuk Value and Valuation.

a.     Nilai, digunakan sebagai kata benda abstrak.

b.    Nilai sebagai katabenda konkret.

c.     Nilai juga digunakan sebagai kata kerja dalam ekspresi menilai, memberi nilai, dan dinilai.    

5.             Menurut Wibisono aksiologi adalah nilai-nilai sebagai tolak ukur kebenaran, etika dan moral sebagai dasar normatif penelitian dan penggalian, serta penerapan ilmu.

6.             Richad Laningan mengatakan bahwa aksiologi merupakan kategori keempat dalam filsafat merupakan studi etika dan estetika. Hal ini berarti bahwa aksiologi berfokus pada kajian terhadap nilai-nilai manusiawi serta bagaimana cara mengekspresikanya.

7.             Langeveld memberikan pendapat bahwa aksiologi terdiri atas dua hal utama, yaitu etika dan estetika. Etika merupakan bagian filsafat nilai dan penilaian yang membicarakan perilaku orang, sedangkan estetika adalah bagian filsafat tentang nilai dan penilaian yang memandang karya manusia dari sudut indah dan jelek.

8.             Aksiologi ialah ilmu pengetahuan yang menyelediki hakekat nilai yang umumnya ditinjau dari sudut pandang kefilsafatan (Kattsoff: 1992). Nilai yang dimaksud adalah sesuatu yang dimiliki manusia untuk melakukan berbagai pertimbangan tentang apa yang dinilai. Kattsoff (2004: 323) menyatakan bahwa pertanyaan mengenai hakekat nilai dapat dijawab dengan cara yaitu : Subyektivitas yatu nilai sepenuhnya berhakekat subyektif. Ditinjau dari sudut pandang ini, nilai merupakan reaksi yang diberikan manusia sebagai pelaku dan keberadaannya tergantung dari pengalaman.

Dari definisi-definisi mengenai aksiologi diatas, terlihat dengan jelas bahwa permasalahan yang utama adalah mengenai nilai. Nilai yang dimaksud adalah sesuatu yang dimiliki manusia untuk melakukan berbagai pertimbangan tentang apa yang dinilai. Teori tentang nilai yang dalam filsafat mengacu pada permasalahan etika dan estetika.         

Kata Nilai merupakan kata jenis yang meliputi segenap macam kebaikan dan sejumlah hal yang lain. Nilai itu objektif ataukah subjektif adalah sangat tergantung dari hasil pandangan yang muncul dari filsafat.

 Nilai akan menjadi subjektif, apabila subjek sangat berperan dalam segala hal, kesadaran manusia menjadi tolak ukur segalanya; atau eksistensinya, maknanya dan validitasnya tergantung pada reaksi subjek yang melakukan penilaian tanpa mempertimbangkan apakah ini bersifat psikis atau fisis. Dengan demikian, nilai subjektif akan selalu memperhatikan berbagai pandangan yang dimilki akal budi manusia, seperti perasaan, intelektualitas, dan hasil nilai subjektif selalu akan mengarah kepada suka atau tidak suka, senang atau tidak senang.

Aksiologi merupakan cabang filsafat ilmu yang mempertanyakan bagaimana manusia menggunakan ilmunya.

Aksiologi adalah bagian dari filsafat yang menaruh perhatian tentang baik dan buruk (good and bad), benar dan salah (right and wrong), serta tentang cara dan tujuan (means and aims). Aksiologi mencoba merumuskan suatu teori yang konsisten untuk perilaku etis.

Obyektivisme logis yaitu nilai merupakan kenyataan ditinjau dari segi ontologi, namun tidak terdapat dalam ruang dan waktu.Nilai-nilai tersebut merupakan esensi logis dan dapat diketahui melalui akal.Obyektivisme metafisik yaitu nilai merupakan unsur obyektif yang menyusun kenyataan.          

Situasi nilai meliputi empat hal yaitu pertama, segi pragmatis yang merupakan suatu subyek yang memberi nilai. Kedua, segi semantis yang merupakan suatu obyek yang diberi nilai. Ketiga, suatu perbuatan penilaian. Keempat, nilai ditambah perbuatan penilaian.         

Problem utama aksiologi ujar runes berkaitan empat faktor :Kodrat nilai berupa problem mengenai apakah nilai itu berasal dari keinginan, kesenangan, kepentingan, keinginan rasio murni.

Jenis-jenis nilai menyangkut perbedaan antara nilai intrinsik, ukuran untuk kebijaksanaan nilai itu sendiri, nilai-nilai instrumental (baik barang-barang ekonomi atau peristiwa-peristiwa alamiah) mengenai nilai-nilai intrinsik.Kriteria nilai (ukuran nilai yang di butuhkan).         

Aksiologi adalah cabang filsafat yang mempelajari tentang nilai secara umum, sebagai landasan ilmu, aksiologi membicarakan untuk apa pengetahuan yang berupa ilmu itu di pergunakan?         

Situasi Nilai maliputi : Suatu subyek yang memberi Nilai  yang sebaiknya kita namakan segi pragmatis.Suatu obyek yang diberi nilai-yang kita sebut segi semantis. Suatu perbuatan penilaian,  suatu nilai ditambah perbuatan peniaian.         

 Pendekatan-pendekatan dalam Aksiologi dapat dijawab dengan tiga macam cara : Nilai sepenuhnya berhakekat subyektif.

Nilai-Nilai merupakan kenyataan-kenyataan yang ditinjau dari segi ontologi namun tidak terdapat dalam ruang dan waktu.

Nilai-Nilai merupakan unsur-unsur obyektif yang menyusun kenyataan.         

-       Makna Nilai

-       Mengandung Nilai

-       Merupakan Nilai

-       Mempunyai Nilai

-       Memberi Nilai. 

Hubungan Aksiologi terhadap pembelajaran Bahasa Inggris

Aksiologi adalah pembahasan mengenai nilai moral pengetahuan yang menyelidiki/ mengkaji seluk beluk hakikat nilai. Aksiologi menjawab pertanyaan apa manfaat dan nilai yang dapat diperoleh dari pembelajaran bahasa Inggris.

Dalam pembahasan ini kami akan mencoba menguraikan kajian hakikat nilai dalam pembelajaran Bahasa Inggris, antara lain:

1.    Subjektivisme

2.    Objektivisme Logis

3.    Objektivisme Metafisik

4.    Makna Nilai

5.    Etika

6.    Estetika

TEACHING ENGLISH TO YOUNG LERANER

RESOURCES AND TECHNOLOGY  SUPPORT FOR LANGUAGE LERNING

1.      INTRODUCTION

A potted history of educational technology would reveal that teaching in the 1980s meant being at the cusp of a quiet revolution. In August 1981, IBM released the first personal computer (PC). This particular PC was equipped with anywhere from 16 kilobytes to 256 kilobytes of memory, one or two floppy disk drives and an optional color monitor. In September 1982, the Commodor 64 computer was released for a grand price of $595, replete with 64K of RAM, a cartridge and serial peripheral ports, two joysticks, three channels of sound and a 16-color matrix. Then in November 1985, Microsoft released Microsoft Windows. Four years later, email became commercialized and at the turn of the decade, Berners-Lee had built all the tools necessary for a working World Wide Web with the first web browser, the first web server and the first web page in 1990.

Learning english through Motorcycle

With the spread and development of English around the world, English is used as a second language in a country like India and for some people the 1st language. It enjoys a high prestige in the country. At present the role and status of English in India is higher than ever as evidenced by its position as a key subject of medium of instruction, curriculum. As the number of English learners is increasing different teaching methods have been implemented to test the effectiveness of the teaching process. Use of authentic materials in the form of films, radio, TV has been there for a long time. It is true that these technologies have proved successful in replacing the traditional teaching.

The new era assigns new challenges and duties on the modern teacher. The tradition of English teaching has been drastically changed with the remarkable entry of technology. Technology provides so many options as making teaching interesting and also making teaching more productive in terms of improvements. Technology is one of the most significant drivers of both social and linguistic change. Graddol: (1997:16) states that” technology lies at the heart of the globalization process; affecting education work and culture. The use of English language has increased rapidly after 1960. At present the role and status of English is that it is the language of social context, political, sociocultural, business, education, industries, media, library, communication across borders, and key subject in curriculum and language of imparting education”. It is also a crucial determinant for university entrance and processing well paid jobs in the commercial sector. Since there are more and more English learners in India, different teaching methods have been implemented to test the effectiveness of the teaching process. One method involves multimedia in ELT in order to create English contexts. This helps students to get involved and learn according to their interests, It has been tested effectively and is widely accepted for teaching English in modern world.

Technology is utilized for the upliftment of modern styles; it satisfies both visual and auditory senses of the students. With the spread and development of English around the world, English has been learned and used by more and more speakers. According to David Graddol ‘it is the language at the leading edge of scientific and technological development, new thinking in economies and management, new literatures and entertainment genre

2.      DISCUSSION

2.1.Use of technology

As the use of English has increased in popularity so has the need for qualified teachers to instruct students in the language. It is true that there are teachers who use ‘cutting edge’ technology, but the majority of teachers still teach in the traditional manner. None of these traditional manners are bad or damaging the students. In fact, till date they are proving to be useful also. However, there are many more opportunities for students to gain confidence practice and extend themselves, especially for ESL students who learn the language for more than just fun. For them to keep pace with ELT and gain more confidence they have to stride into the world of multimedia technology

2.2.The growth of ELT trough technology

21st century is the age of globalization and is important to grasp on various foreign languages and English language comes first.English Language Teaching has been with us for many years and its significance continues to grow, fuelled, partially by the Internet. Graddol’s study (2000) suggests that in the year 2000 there were about a billion English learners- but a decade later the numbers doubled. The forecast points to a surge in English learning, which has peaked in 2010. The same study indicates that over 80% of information stored on the internet is in English. For the first time there are more Non-Native than Native users of the language and diversity of context in terms of learners, age, nationality, learning background etcetera has become a defining characteristic of ELT today.

With the rapid development of science and technology, the emerging and developing of multimedia technology and its application to teaching, featuring audio, visual, animation effects comes into full play in English class teaching and sets a favorable platform for reform and exploration on English teaching model in the new era. It’s proved that multimedia technology plays a positive role in promoting activities and initiatives of student and teaching effect in English class. Technological innovations have gone hand –inhand with the growth of English and are changing the way in which we communicate. It is fair to assert that the growth of the internet has facilitated the growth of the English language and that this has occurred at a time when computers are no longer the exclusive domains of the dedicated few, but rather available to many. With this there has been a very significant proliferation of literature regarding the use of technology in teaching English language. Mostly these writings unequivocally accept technology as the most essential part in teaching. In a sense, a tendency to emphasize on inevitable role of technology in pedagogy to the extent of obliterating human part of teacher by technology part has been very dominant. And as a result if we neglect or ignore technological developments they will continue and perhaps we will never be able to catch up, irrespective of our discipline or branch. For this reason it is important for language teachers to be aware of the latest and best equipment and to have a full knowledge of what is available in any given situation. Teachers can use Multimedia Technology to give more colorful, stimulating lectures (new Horizons).

 There are many techniques applicable in various degrees to language learning situation. Some are useful for testing and distance education, and some for teaching business English, spoken English, reading, listening or interpreting. The teaching principle should be to appreciate new technologies in the areas and functions where they provide something decisively new useful and never let machines takeover the role of the teacher or limit functions where more traditional ways are superior.There are various reasons why all language learners and teachers must know how to make use of the new technology. Here we also need to emphasize that the new technologies develop and disseminate so quickly that we cannot avoid their attraction and influence in any form

2.3. Using commercials texts

A wide variety of mommercial textbooks is available these days. A distinction that is traditionally drawn is between comprehensive course series and supplemtary resources. A comprehensive course series will usually consist of four to six levels, be based on a detailed syllabus and contain a range of resources, including student text, student workbook, teachers’ manual, audio-visual resouces, website, simplified readers, wall charts, and posters. Resouces books are usually one or two levels and are intended to provide additional work, usually focused on a skill such as speaking or listening, or in one of the three language systems ; pronunciation, grammer, or vocabulary.

Good textbook often contain lively and interesting materials, they provide a sensible progression of language items, clearly showing what has to be learnt and in some cases summarizing what has been studied so that students can revise grammatical and functional points that they have been concentrating on. Textbook can be systematic about the amount of vocabulary presented to the student and allow students to study on their own outside the class. (harmer, 1991).

Kathleen graves, a leading textbook author sets out several key principles for using a coursebook.

2.3.1.      Understanding how the coursebook is organized : a coursebook provides a visible outline, or map of the terrytory to be covered.

2.3.2.      Adapt the materials : because a cousebook are written for generalized audience, they need to be adapted. To do this, you need to decide which bits you want to keep definetly. Which bits you want to modify or adapt, which bits you definetly want to leave out, and which bits you want to supplement.

2.3.3.      Pepare the learners; graves found that the single biggest problem with coursebooks was not that they were boring or too complicated, but that the students hadn’t been prapared for them. Learner need to know what they have to do, why thet have to do it, and that they have the skills to do it.

2.3.4.      Monitor and follow up: while students dong an activity, the teacher has the important task of monitoring what they are dong and how well they are doing.

2.3.5.      Buld a repertoire: familiarize yourself with the main, recurring task types and develop your own routine for teaching those task (graves, 2003).

In many situations textbooks form the basis of the curriculum in language programs. Provided there is a good degree of fit between the textbook and the teaching context teachers use textbooks to provide the major source of input and direction to their teaching. Thus does not necessarily mean that the teacher plays a secondary role in the teaching process since teachers normally improvise around their teaching materials, moving back and forth between book-based input and teacher-initiated input. Hence even though a teacher may teach the same lesson from a textbook many times, each time he or she teaches it becomes a different lesson due to the improvisations the teacher initiates during teaching. These may result from on-the-spot decisions relating to timing, affective factors, and responses to learner difficulties. Experienced teachers hence use textbooks flexibly as a teaching resource.

Sometimes however adaptation may be required to reflect the needs of a specific teaching context. Various forms of adaptation are possible:

1). Adding material to address an examination requirement: sometimes supplementary material may need to be added to address the requirements of a specific institutional or other exam. For example the reading component of an institutional text may make use of multiple-choice questions rather than the kinds of comprehension tasks found in a course book, so extra material to practice using multiple-choice questions may be needed.

2). Extending to provide additional practice: a book unit has a limited number of pages and at times the teacher may feel additional practice of grammar, vocabulary or skills is required and sources additional materials to supplement the book.

3). Localizing: an activity in the book may be more effective if it is modified to reflect local issues and content rather than the content that is discussed in the coursebook Localization also involves adapting or supplementing an activity to address the specific needs of a group of learners. For example pronunciation problems might reflect interference form the students’ first language and these might not be covered in the book. Additional activities can be added to address problems specific to the  learners.

4). Modifying content: Content may need to be changed because it does not suit the target learners, perhaps because of the learners’ age, gender, social background, occupation, religion or cultural background.

5). Reorganizing content: A teacher may decide to reorganize the syllabus of the book, and arrange the units in what she or he considers a more suitable order. Or within a unit the teacher may decide not to follow the sequence of activities in the unit but to reorganize them for a particular reason.

6). Modifying tasks: Exercises and activities may need to be changed to give them an additional focus. For example, a listening activity may focus only on listening for information, so it adapted so that students listen a second or third time for a different purpose. An activity may be extended to provide opportunities for more personalized practice. Or some exercises within a sequence may be dropped.

While in many cases a book may work perfectly well without the need for much adaptation, in some cases different levels of adaptation may be needed. Through the process of adaptation the teacher personalize the text, making it a better teaching resource, and individualizes it for a particular group of learners. Normally this process takes place gradually as the teacher becomes more familiar with the book because the dimensions of the text that need adaptation may not be apparent until the book is tried out in the classroom.

2.4. Visual and realia

Visual are important in all language classroom, but they are essential fpr teaching young learners. Picture, cartoons, diagrams and the like can a wealth of meaning in an instant. Similarly, videos can introduce learners to important aspects of the target culture.

Video can fulfill different functions for learner at differents levels of proficiency. For beginning learners, a video can provide examples of authentic language use in limited contexts. In this way, it can validate the language that students are learning, and demonstrate hown it is used in the world beyond theb classroom.  With higher levels students, a video can provide variety, interest and stimulations and thereby help to maintain motivation. It can also be used for extensive listening for gist. With advanced students video can provide both information and entertaiment. (nunan and lamb :1996).

2.4.1.      Why do I think you need to use audio-visual aids in your lesson?

2.4.1.1.         To maintain a high level of interest in the lesson

Audio-visual aids give the necessary variation and a change of pace in your lesson to help maintain your students' attention and interest.

2.4.1.2.     To get students to use the language, especially at the beginning stages

3. Top of Form

4. Bottom of Form

For example, pictorial materials can provide students with something to talk about.

2.4.1.3.         To promote greater student participation

You can ask students to perform a particular task with the help of a teaching aid, either individually or in groups.

2.4.1.4.         They can be used at all levels of learning

What you need to keep in mind is for whom are you planning to use the teaching aids; you must consider your students' ages, their intellectual levels, their language proficiency level and their socio-cultural background. Teaching aids should not be used just because they are available or that you find them fun to use. They are aids to instruction not ends in themselves. Therefore, their use requires careful planning on your part if you want to achieve maximum effectiveness.

The same can be said for realia. The term realia is used to refer to objects and artifacts from the world outside the classroom, real-life objects not initially intended for second language teaching. With younger children, toys, stuffed animals, glove puppers, colored building blocks, and so on can supplements books, popsters, and other more traditional teaching aids. For older learners, there is almost no limit to the resources that you can draw on : musical instruments, clothing, jewelry, board games, movie and pop star posters, etc. Can enrich the language learning experience. Additionally, the learning experience can be made richer and more meaningful if learners can be encouraged to bring their own possessions along to the classroom.

2.5.          Realia can be in the form of:

2.5.1.      Written text or print taken from newspapers, magazines, books, the Internet which have not been written for the purpose of second language teaching and learning.

2.5.2.      Audio-visual materials not produced for the purpose of second language teaching and learning.

2.5.3.      Non-linguistic such as stones, leaves, food products, clothes, etc.

2.6.          Why use Realia?

2.6.1.      Connects your students to the world outside the classroom

2.6.2.      Makes language learning more relevant and meaningful

2.6.3.      Prepares your students for post-classroom experience

2.6.4.      Motivates your students to investigate and use L2 outside the classroom

2.7.          What problems might you face when you bring linguistic realia into the classroom?

2.7.1.      Complexity of the text (oral or written): you might find that the grammar, vocabulary or text structure too complex for your students’ level of ability

2.7.2.      Your students might have problems understanding a native speaker’s pronounciation because of his or her dialect, hesitations or rapid speech

2.7.3.      Your students might have problems understanding the cultural references being made in terms of geography, history, humour, philosophy, customs and social issues

2.8.          There are certain principles that you must keep in mind when using realia in the classroom.

2.8.1.      General

2.8.1.1.Tell your students that it is "real"

2.8.1.2.Choose realia that is relevant and interesting

2.8.1.3.Provide the relevant cultural background beforehand

2.8.1.4.Make connections to realia in your students’ own culture

2.8.2.      Linguistic Realia

2.8.2.1.Be aware that the text (print or audio-visual) may be too difficult for your L2 students to understand most or all of it

2.8.2.2.When there are vocabulary problems, you can do or more of the following:

2.8.2.2.1.      Introduce the words in advance

2.8.2.2.2.      Focus on other things besides the vocabulary

2.8.2.2.3.      Focus on the key words

2.8.3.      For lower ability students:

2.8.3.1.Choose the text very carefully

2.8.3.2.Focus on specific aspects of the text

2.8.3.3.Use dramatic techniques to help clarify written text or audio-visual materials

2.8.3.4.For print materials, make sure you have enough copies

2.8.3.5.For audio-visual materials, make sure the recording is clear; that you preview the material beforehand; that you have the proper equipment and know how to use it

2.9.          Non-Linguistic Realia

2.9.1.      Have a clear idea of your linguistic purposePreteach relevant vocabulary and grammatical points

2.10.      Projected Display Materials

2.10.1.  Overhead projector

Why is the overhead projector (OHP) considered a versatile teaching aid?

2.10.1.1.      It is vivid and interest-catching – gives a bright image on the screen

2.10.1.2.      No need to blackout the room – image is clear even in a bright room

2.10.1.3.      You can face your students while discussing information on the transparency

2.10.1.4.      You can prepare your transparencies ahead of time or write on them during   presentation

2.10.1.5.      The OHP is mobile -- it can be moved from room to room or from one part of the room to another part

2.10.1.6.      There are few technical problems if carefully used

2.10.1.7.      The transparencies are easily carried around and stored

2.10.1.8.      You and your colleagues can build up a collection of transparencies for general use

2.10.2.  Slide projector

There is a wide range of slide projectors available in the market but the best type to use in the classroom is one which holds a slide tray or carousel and has a long remote control extension cable to allow the teacher freer movement and to talk from the front of the class.

Why use the Slide Projector?

Although the slide projector is not as flexible as the OHP (slides have to be carefully prepared in advance and there needs to be a partial blackout in the classroom), it has some definite advantages:

2.10.2.1.      There is a change of pace and activity when the slide projector is used and this could arouse the interest of the students. The practical preparations of setting up the projector and blacking out the room cause an excitement that something different is going to happen.

2.10.2.2.      The slides are easy to obtain and produce. Slides can be teacher-made or can be bought commercially.

2.10.2.3.      They can be arranged and re-arranged into different sets for different uses.

2.10.2.4.      They create an impact and transport the students beyond the confines of the classroom.

2.10.2.5.      They can be shown at any speed. The teacher can, for example, hold a picture on the screen for some time to examine it in detail or to facilitate discussion among the students.

2.10.3.  Video recorder

The video recorder and tapes are now common teaching aids available in many schools, especially those located in urban areas. However, teachers often do not take full advantage of their usefulness for teaching and learning and this is usually because they do not plan sufficiently well and ahead of time to incorporate them in their lessons. This section discusses the advantages of using the video in the classroom and what you must do before, during and after viewing to ensure an effective lesson.

Why is the video a powerful and effective tool for your students to learn English? You can use it to:

2.10.3.1.      generate interest and stimulate your students’ imagination

2.10.3.2.      provide a common experience for all your students

2.10.3.3.      offer a different approach to a topic

2.10.3.4.      connect their students to far away places or to experiences unavailable in the classroom

2.10.3.5.      demonstrate abstract ideas

2.10.3.6.      stimulate the development of critical thinking skills

2.10.3.7.      promote critical viewing skills and media awareness

2.11.      Cumputer – Assisted Language Learning

CALL is filled with areas that are unknown and in need of exploration. Even where much is known, details have not been made clear or need to be made clearer as others factors and conditions change such as the introduction of new technologies and the adoption of existing technologies. The field of CALL is also constantly undergoing change becuse of technological innovtions that ceate the opportunities to revisit old findings, to conduct new research and to challenge established beliefs about the way in which teaching and learning can be carried out both with and without a human teacher. At the same time , advances in parallel fields inform CALL and help direct the research agenda. (beatty: 2003).

In online education in general, technology function as a :

2.11.1.  Carrier of content and an instructional tool

2.11.2.  Learning management tool

2.11.3.  Communication tool

In Call, the main role for technology is as a provider of content and an instructional tool. When the computer presents learners with listening and reading, and information on pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammer, it is acting as a carrier of content. When the computer provides opportunities for learners to practice the language by doing spoken and written drills, completing comprehension questions, carrying out grammer exercise, and so on, it is acting as an instructional tool.

            There are several ways in which learning can be organized through CALL, it can be used as a stand-alone or it can be blended.  Integration of traditional face to face classroom and virtual classroom is referred to blended – learning.

Model 1: the traditional classroom is supplemented and supported by technology.

In this model, classroom content is delivered in the traditional face to face manner, but instruction is supplemented by technology.  This suplementation can take the form of additional content or support for the management of learning. The teacher decides what is to be thought, how it is to be taught and how it is to be assessed.

Model 2: technology delivers the content and is supported by web-based live instruction.

Instructional content is delivered through technology, and is supplemented and supported by a teacher. That is followed by commercial enterprises such as english town and  global english. For example, global english consists of a comprehensive ten level suite of course which is accompanied by a wide range of additional resources, such as online needs-analysis instruments, grammar and vocabulary enrichment, and an online magazine. Self paced learning is supported by a talk with a teacher and other learners in a virtual classroom through text and voice chat.

Model 3: technology dilivers the content and is supported by supplemental face to face instruction.

This similar to model 2 exept that the live support is provided in traditional face to face classrooms rather than through the internet.

Model 4: the fully integrated classroom

Teachers do what they do best, such as facilitating interaction in the target language, and technology does what it does best. (nunan: 2010).

3.                CONCLUSION

We have looked at some of the resources that are available to support that learning process. We suggested that commercially produced textbooks can either be central or suplementary to the learning program. In addition to considering the selection and evaluatin of textbooks, this topics looks at visuals and realia as well as the use od CALL.

Although CALL is not, at this point, sweeping all before it, it is certanly becoming a dominant force as a resource for learning. The area where CALL based pedagogy outpaces conventional materials are in the ptovinsion of:

ü  individualized study plans

ü  anywhere/anytime instructions

ü  patient tutoring

ü  a private space to make mistakes

ü  immediate. Individualized instruction

ü  datailed records of achievment

ü  self-spaced learning

4.                REFERENCES

Anonymous : http://www.telt.um.edu.my/6-3projected.html#6.3.1

David nunan : 2011. Teaching english to young learners. USA: anaheim university press.

Solanki D. Shyamlee M Phil :2012. Use of Technology in English Language Teaching and Learning”: An Analysis. Singapore : IACSIT Press

Tony erben, ruth ban and martha castaneda :2009.  teaching english language learners through technology. New york and london : routledge.